ContaminantDB: Glycine

Identification Taxonomy Biological Properties Physical Properties Toxicity Profile Spectra Concentrations Links References Targets (31)XML

Record Information

Version

1.0

Creation Date

2014-08-29 06:21:32 UTC

Update Date

2026-05-14 16:24:16 UTC

Accession Number

CHEM003278

Identification

Common Name

Glycine

Class

Small Molecule

Description

Glycine is a simple, nonessential amino acid, although experimental animals show reduced growth on low-glycine diets. The average adult ingests 3 to 5 grams of glycine daily. Glycine is involved in the body's production of DNA, phospholipids and collagen, and in release of energy. Glycine levels are effectively measured in plasma in both normal patients and those with inborn errors of glycine metabolism. Nonketotic hyperglycinaemia (OMIM 606899) is an autosomal recessive condition caused by deficient enzyme activity of the glycine cleavage enzyme system (EC 2.1.1.10). The glycine cleavage enzyme system comprises four proteins: P-, T-, H- and L-proteins (EC 1.4.4.2, EC 2.1.2.10 and EC 1.8.1.4 for P-, T- and L-proteins). Mutations have been described in the GLDC (OMIM 238300), AMT (OMIM 238310), and GCSH (OMIM 238330) genes encoding the P-, T-, and H-proteins respectively. The glycine cleavage system catalyses the oxidative conversion of glycine into carbon dioxide and ammonia, with the remaining one-carbon unit transferred to folate as methylenetetrahydrofolate. It is the main catabolic pathway for glycine and it also contributes to one-carbon metabolism. Patients with a deficiency of this enzyme system have increased glycine in plasma, urine and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) with an increased CSF: plasma glycine ratio. (1). t is also a fast inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Contaminant Sources

Cosmetic Chemicals
EAFUS Chemicals
FooDB Chemicals
HMDB Contaminants - Feces
HMDB Contaminants - Urine
HPV EPA Chemicals
STOFF IDENT Compounds
T3DB toxins
ToxCast & Tox21 Chemicals

Contaminant Type

Amine
Animal Toxin
Dietary Supplement
Drug
Food Toxin
Glycine Agent
Household Toxin
Metabolite
Micronutrient
Natural Compound
Non-Essential Amino Acid
Nutraceutical
Organic Compound
Supplement

Chemical Structure

MOL SDF PDB SMILES InChI

Synonyms

Value	Source
Aminoacetic acid	ChEBI
Aminoessigsaeure	ChEBI
Aminoethanoic acid	ChEBI
G	ChEBI
Gly	ChEBI
Glycin	ChEBI
Glycocoll	ChEBI
Glykokoll	ChEBI
Glyzin	ChEBI
H2N-CH2-COOH	ChEBI
Hgly	ChEBI
Leimzucker	ChEBI
Aminoacetate	Generator
Aminoethanoate	Generator
2-Aminoacetate	HMDB
2-Aminoacetic acid	HMDB
Aciport	HMDB
Amino-acetate	HMDB
Amino-acetic acid	HMDB
Glicoamin	HMDB
Glycolixir	HMDB
Glycosthene	HMDB
Gyn-hydralin	HMDB
Padil	HMDB
Glycine carbonate (1:1), monosodium salt	HMDB
Glycine carbonate (2:1), monopotassium salt	HMDB
Glycine sulfate (3:1)	HMDB
Glycine, monoammonium salt	HMDB
Glycine, monosodium salt	HMDB
Glycine, sodium hydrogen carbonate	HMDB
Monoammonium salt glycine	HMDB
Calcium salt glycine	HMDB
Glycine hydrochloride (2:1)	HMDB
Glycine phosphate (1:1)	HMDB
Glycine, monopotasssium salt	HMDB
Monopotasssium salt glycine	HMDB
Monosodium salt glycine	HMDB
Glycine carbonate (2:1), monolithium salt	HMDB
Glycine carbonate (2:1), monosodium salt	HMDB
Glycine hydrochloride	HMDB
Glycine, copper salt	HMDB
Hydrochloride, glycine	HMDB
Salt glycine, monoammonium	HMDB
Acid, aminoacetic	HMDB
Cobalt salt glycine	HMDB
Copper salt glycine	HMDB
Glycine phosphate	HMDB
Glycine, calcium salt	HMDB
Glycine, calcium salt (2:1)	HMDB
Glycine, cobalt salt	HMDB
Phosphate, glycine	HMDB
Salt glycine, monosodium	HMDB

Chemical Formula

C₂H₅NO₂

Average Molecular Mass

75.067 g/mol

Monoisotopic Mass

75.032 g/mol

CAS Registry Number

56-40-6

IUPAC Name

2-aminoacetic acid

Traditional Name

glycine

SMILES

NCC(O)=O

InChI Identifier

InChI=1S/C2H5NO2/c3-1-2(4)5/h1,3H2,(H,4,5)

InChI Key

DHMQDGOQFOQNFH-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Chemical Taxonomy

Description

belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alpha amino acids. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon).

Kingdom

Organic compounds

Super Class

Organic acids and derivatives

Class

Carboxylic acids and derivatives

Sub Class

Amino acids, peptides, and analogues

Direct Parent

Alpha amino acids

Alternative Parents

Substituents

Alpha-amino acid
Amino acid
Carboxylic acid
Monocarboxylic acid or derivatives
Organic nitrogen compound
Organic oxide
Hydrocarbon derivative
Primary amine
Organooxygen compound
Organonitrogen compound
Organopnictogen compound
Primary aliphatic amine
Organic oxygen compound
Carbonyl group
Amine
Aliphatic acyclic compound

Molecular Framework

Aliphatic acyclic compounds

External Descriptors

alpha-amino acid (CHEBI:15428 )
proteinogenic amino acid (CHEBI:15428 )
serine family amino acid (CHEBI:15428 )
Common amino acids (C00037 )
Amino acids (C00037 )

Biological Properties

Status

Detected and Not Quantified

Origin

Endogenous

Cellular Locations

Extracellular
Lysosome
Membrane
Mitochondria
Peroxisome

Biofluid Locations

Not Available

Tissue Locations

Bladder
Brain
Epidermis
Fibroblasts
Intestine
Kidney
Myelin
Neuron
Pancreas
Placenta
Platelet
Prostate
Spleen
Stratum Corneum
Thyroid Gland

Pathways

Name	SMPDB Link	KEGG Link
Alanine Metabolism	SMP00055	map00250
Ammonia Recycling	SMP00009	map00910
Bile Acid Biosynthesis	SMP00035	Not Available
Carnitine Synthesis	SMP00465	Not Available
Glutathione Metabolism	SMP00015	map00480
Glycine and Serine Metabolism	SMP00004	map00260
Methionine Metabolism	SMP00033	map00270
Porphyrin Metabolism	SMP00024	map00860
Citrullinemia Type I	SMP00001	Not Available
Hyperglycinemia, non-ketotic	SMP00485	Not Available
Hyperprolinemia Type I	SMP00361	Not Available
Hyperprolinemia Type II	SMP00360	Not Available
Iminoglycinuria	SMP00193	Not Available
Isovaleric Aciduria	SMP00238	Not Available
Malonic Aciduria	SMP00198	Not Available
Methylmalonic Aciduria	SMP00200	Not Available
Methylmalonic Aciduria Due to Cobalamin-Related Disorders	SMP00201	Not Available
Non Ketotic Hyperglycinemia	SMP00223	Not Available
Prolinemia Type II	SMP00208	Not Available
Propionic Acidemia	SMP00236	Not Available
Short Chain Acyl CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency (SCAD Deficiency)	SMP00235	Not Available

Applications

Biological Roles

Chemical Roles

EC 2.1.2.1 (glycine hydroxymethyltransferase) inhibitor

Physical Properties

State

Solid

Appearance

White powder.

Experimental Properties

Property	Value
Melting Point	262 dec°C
Boiling Point	Not Available
Solubility	2.49E+005 mg/L (at 25°C)

Predicted Properties

Property	Value	Source
Water Solubility	552 g/L	ALOGPS
logP	-3.3	ALOGPS
logP	-3.4	ChemAxon
logS	0.87	ALOGPS
pKa (Strongest Acidic)	2.31	ChemAxon
pKa (Strongest Basic)	9.24	ChemAxon
Physiological Charge	0	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count	3	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Donor Count	2	ChemAxon
Polar Surface Area	63.32 Å²	ChemAxon
Rotatable Bond Count	1	ChemAxon
Refractivity	16 m³·mol⁻¹	ChemAxon
Polarizability	6.65 Å³	ChemAxon
Number of Rings	0	ChemAxon
Bioavailability	1	ChemAxon
Rule of Five	Yes	ChemAxon
Ghose Filter	No	ChemAxon
Veber's Rule	No	ChemAxon
MDDR-like Rule	No	ChemAxon

Spectra

Spectrum Type	Description	Splash Key	View
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Pegasus III TOF-MS system, Leco; GC 6890, Agilent Technologies) (3 TMS)	splash10-00dj-2900000000-0ef96bcf06ce475afcdd	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Pegasus III TOF-MS system, Leco; GC 6890, Agilent Technologies) (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00dj-1900000000-1d289099ac79cfb8bb19	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Pegasus III TOF-MS system, Leco; GC 6890, Agilent Technologies) (3 TMS)	splash10-00di-7910000000-6c972a683dfb75b69331	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (2 TMS)	splash10-0udi-0900000000-ef69e38ee6cebc2ece00	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (3 TMS)	splash10-00di-2910000000-3215b9e40f20c7b306cd	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)	splash10-001i-9000000000-719b7f248956f13a312d	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0udi-0900000000-99b4fc43740b21edc786	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-1910000000-4cff4d14c73acff9442f	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00dj-2900000000-0ef96bcf06ce475afcdd	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00dj-1900000000-1d289099ac79cfb8bb19	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-QQ (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0002-4960000000-2c6fa028e985c6019854	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-7910000000-6c972a683dfb75b69331	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-2910000000-3215b9e40f20c7b306cd	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0udi-0900000000-ef69e38ee6cebc2ece00	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00ds-2900000000-ffffed9c78c16a884e4a	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-004r-3900000000-f288b50b7b6890429811	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0udi-1900000000-c76140c31c1f120e4b9d	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized) - 70eV, Positive	splash10-001i-9000000000-f0a2cfbefb9fcd9b6c3e	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (1 TMS) - 70eV, Positive	splash10-00di-9300000000-b8bbfc1276d5adb1ba04	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized) - 70eV, Positive	Not Available	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (TMS_1_2) - 70eV, Positive	Not Available	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (TBDMS_1_1) - 70eV, Positive	Not Available	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (TBDMS_1_2) - 70eV, Positive	Not Available	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 10V, Positive (Annotated)	splash10-003r-9000000000-725357e461c898a7451e	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 25V, Positive (Annotated)	splash10-001i-9000000000-9f3930e66b117ad91dca	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 40V, Positive (Annotated)	splash10-001i-9000000000-b3336097dddbb5e22871	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - EI-B (HITACHI RMU-6M) , Positive	splash10-001i-9000000000-719b7f248956f13a312d	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 10V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-6001578fc511ba3fefef	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 20V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-79b2a0a9d93de6a62358	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 30V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-9290dbe208c4744f4431	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 10V, Positive	splash10-004i-9000000000-342ab462db0835abb3d2	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 20V, Positive	splash10-0ar1-9010000000-9daadc1d169a8530926d	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 30V, Positive	splash10-07y0-9220000000-8c7785f1f3aa8052679f	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 40V, Positive	splash10-0ula-9110000000-43ada06fe1b56b4e9fcc	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 50V, Positive	splash10-017i-9000000000-fbd78fbb48f082235f42	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - CE-ESI-TOF (CE-system connected to 6210 Time-of-Flight MS, Agilent) , Positive	splash10-004i-9000000000-c38d0fb28793438083a9	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - DI-ESI-Q-Exactive Plus , Positive	splash10-004i-9000000000-18a7ae48c7b0e15cdf18	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-6001578fc511ba3fefef	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-79b2a0a9d93de6a62358	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-9290dbe208c4744f4431	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - , negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-605b44ac311a9af4bb7a	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , positive	splash10-004i-9000000000-342ab462db0835abb3d2	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positive	splash10-0059-9000000000-c6b1ebc1dba89b6a6184	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Positive	splash10-001i-9000000000-851aa6a0263541a8b249	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Positive	splash10-053r-9000000000-d3b5624412082bb2cf60	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-89b2c043a5afe3ebc6f6	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-b4046e208ee8adb87021	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Negative	splash10-05fr-9000000000-36521e440c602bd2ca5a	Spectrum
MS	Mass Spectrum (Electron Ionization)	splash10-001i-9000000000-222d6c3a1ba6afcd7ea9	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
2D NMR	[1H,1H] 2D NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
2D NMR	[1H,13C] 2D NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum

Toxicity Profile

Route of Exposure

Absorbed from the small intestine via an active transport mechanism.

Mechanism of Toxicity

In the CNS, there exist strychnine-sensitive glycine binding sites as well as strychnine-insensitive glycine binding sites. The strychnine-insensitive glycine-binding site is located on the NMDA receptor complex. The strychnine-sensitive glycine receptor complex is comprised of a chloride channel and is a member of the ligand-gated ion channel superfamily. The putative antispastic activity of supplemental glycine could be mediated by glycine's binding to strychnine-sensitive binding sites in the spinal cord. This would result in increased chloride conductance and consequent enhancement of inhibitory neurotransmission. The ability of glycine to potentiate NMDA receptor-mediated neurotransmission raised the possibility of its use in the management of neuroleptic-resistant negative symptoms in schizophrenia.
Animal studies indicate that supplemental glycine protects against endotoxin-induced lethality, hypoxia-reperfusion injury after liver transplantation, and D-galactosamine-mediated liver injury. Neutrophils are thought to participate in these pathologic processes via invasion of tissue and releasing such reactive oxygen species as superoxide. In vitro studies have shown that neutrophils contain a glycine-gated chloride channel that can attenuate increases in intracellular calcium and diminsh neutrophil oxidant production. This research is ealy-stage, but suggests that supplementary glycine may turn out to be useful in processes where neutrophil infiltration contributes to toxicity, such as ARDS.

Metabolism

Hepatic

Toxicity Values

ORL-RAT LD₅₀ 7930 mg/kg, SCU-RAT LD₅₀ 5200 mg/kg, IVN-RAT LD₅₀ 2600 mg/kg, ORL-MUS LD₅₀ 4920 mg/kg

Lethal Dose

Not Available

Carcinogenicity (IARC Classification)

No indication of carcinogenicity to humans (not listed by IARC).

Uses/Sources

Supplemental glycine may have antispastic activity. Very early findings suggest it may also have antipsychotic activity as well as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.

Minimum Risk Level

Not Available

Health Effects

Chronically high levels of glycine are associated with at least 12 inborn errors of metabolism including: Citrullinemia Type I, Hyperglycinemia, non-ketotic, Hyperprolinemia Type I, Hyperprolinemia Type II, Iminoglycinuria, Isovaleric Aciduria, Malonic Aciduria, Methylmalonic Aciduria, Methylmalonic Aciduria Due to Cobalamin-Related Disorders, Non Ketotic Hyperglycinemeia, Prolinemia Type II, Propionic academia and Short Chain Acyl CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency (SCAD Deficiency).

Symptoms

Not Available

Treatment

Not Available

Concentrations

Not Available

External Links

DrugBank ID

DB00145

HMDB ID

HMDB0000123

FooDB ID

FDB000484

Phenol Explorer ID

Not Available

KNApSAcK ID

C00001361

BiGG ID

33610

BioCyc ID

GLY

METLIN ID

PDB ID

Not Available

Wikipedia Link

Chemspider ID

ChEBI ID

PubChem Compound ID

Kegg Compound ID

YMDB ID

ECMDB ID

References

Synthesis Reference

Koichi Niimura, Takako Kawabe, Takao Ando, Kenichi Saito, “Phenylalanine-glycine compounds having anti-tumor activity, process for preparation thereof, and pharmaceutical composition containing said compounds.” U.S. Patent US5411964, issued August, 1908.

MSDS

Link

General References

1. Anslow, Winston K.; King, Harold. Synthesis of glycine. Journal of the Chemical Society (1929), 2163-6.

2. Klein MS, Almstetter MF, Schlamberger G, Nurnberger N, Dettmer K, Oefner PJ, Meyer HH, Wiedemann S, Gronwald W: Nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry-based milk metabolomics in dairy cows during early and late lactation. J Dairy Sci. 2010 Apr;93(4):1539-50. doi: 10.3168/jds.2009-2563.

3. Klein MS, Buttchereit N, Miemczyk SP, Immervoll AK, Louis C, Wiedemann S, Junge W, Thaller G, Oefner PJ, Gronwald W: NMR metabolomic analysis of dairy cows reveals milk glycerophosphocholine to phosphocholine ratio as prognostic biomarker for risk of ketosis. J Proteome Res. 2012 Feb 3;11(2):1373-81. doi: 10.1021/pr201017n. Epub 2011 Dec 9.

4. Scano P, Murgia A, Pirisi FM, Caboni P: A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-based metabolomic approach for the characterization of goat milk compared with cow milk. J Dairy Sci. 2014 Oct;97(10):6057-66. doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-8247. Epub 2014 Aug 6.

5. Mung D, Li L: Development of Chemical Isotope Labeling LC-MS for Milk Metabolomics: Comprehensive and Quantitative Profiling of the Amine/Phenol Submetabolome. Anal Chem. 2017 Apr 18;89(8):4435-4443. doi: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03737. Epub 2017 Mar 28.

6. Mung D, Li L: Applying quantitative metabolomics based on chemical isotope labeling LC-MS for detecting potential milk adulterant in human milk. Anal Chim Acta. 2018 Feb 25;1001:78-85. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.11.019. Epub 2017 Nov 14.

7. Kurt J. Boudonck, Matthew W. Mitchell, Jacob Wulff and John A. Ryals. Characterization of the biochemical variability of bovine milk using metabolomics. Metabolomics (2009) 5:375?386

8. A. Foroutan et al. The Chemical Composition of Commercial Cow's Milk (in preparation)

9. Fooddata+, The Technical University of Denmark (DTU): https://frida.fooddata.dk/QueryFood.php?fn=milk&lang=en