ContaminantDB: Fumaric acid

Identification Taxonomy Biological Properties Physical Properties Toxicity Profile Spectra Concentrations Links References Targets (17)XML

Record Information

Version

1.0

Creation Date

2014-08-29 05:58:32 UTC

Update Date

2026-04-16 21:17:44 UTC

Accession Number

CHEM003197

Identification

Common Name

Fumaric acid

Class

Small Molecule

Description

Fumaric acid is a precursor to L-malate in the Krebs tricarboxylic acid cycle. It is formed by the oxidation of succinate by succinate dehydrogenase. Fumarate is converted by fumarase to malate. A fumarate is a salt or ester of the organic compound fumaric acid, a dicarboxylic acid. Fumarate has recently been recognized as an oncometabolite. (8). As a food additive, fumaric acid is used to impart a tart taste to processed foods. It is also used as an antifungal agent in boxed foods such as cake mixes and flours, as well as tortillas. Fumaric acid is also added to bread to increase the porosity of the final baked product. It is used to impart a sour taste to sourdough and rye bread. In cake mixes, it is used to maintain a low pH and prevent clumping of the flours used in the mix. In fruit drinks, fumaric acid is used to maintain a low pH which, in turn, helps to stabilize flavor and color. Fumaric acid also prevents the growth of E. coli in beverages when used in combination with sodium benzoate. When added to wines, fumaric acid helps to prevent further fermentation and yet maintain low pH and eliminate traces of metallic elements. In this fashion, it helps to stabilize the taste of wine. Fumaric acid can also be added to dairy products, sports drinks, jams, jellies and candies. Fumaric acid helps to break down bonds between gluten proteins in wheat and helps to create a more pliable dough. Fumaric acid is used in paper sizing, printer toner, and polyester resin for making molded walls.

Contaminant Sources

Clean Air Act Chemicals
Cosmetic Chemicals
EAFUS Chemicals
FooDB Chemicals
HMDB Contaminants - Feces
HMDB Contaminants - Urine
HPV EPA Chemicals
T3DB toxins
ToxCast & Tox21 Chemicals

Contaminant Type

Animal Toxin
Food Toxin
Lachrymator
Metabolite
Natural Compound
Organic Compound

Chemical Structure

MOL SDF PDB SMILES InChI

Synonyms

Value	Source
(2E)-2-Butenedioic acid	ChEBI
(e)-2-Butenedioic acid	ChEBI
e297	ChEBI
Fumarsaeure	ChEBI
trans-1,2-Ethylenedicarboxylic acid	ChEBI
trans-But-2-enedioic acid	ChEBI
trans-Butenedioic acid	ChEBI
(2E)-2-Butenedioate	Generator
(e)-2-Butenedioate	Generator
trans-1,2-Ethylenedicarboxylate	Generator
trans-But-2-enedioate	Generator
trans-Butenedioate	Generator
Fumarate	Generator
(2E)-But-2-enedioate	HMDB
(2E)-But-2-enedioic acid	HMDB
2-(e)-Butenedioate	HMDB
2-(e)-Butenedioic acid	HMDB
Allomaleate	HMDB
Allomaleic acid	HMDB
Boletate	HMDB
Boletic acid	HMDB
FC 33	HMDB
Lichenate	HMDB
Lichenic acid	HMDB
trans-2-Butenedioate	HMDB
trans-2-Butenedioic acid	HMDB
Furamag	HMDB
Mafusol	HMDB
Fumaric acid	HMDB

Chemical Formula

C₄H₄O₄

Average Molecular Mass

116.072 g/mol

Monoisotopic Mass

116.011 g/mol

CAS Registry Number

110-17-8

IUPAC Name

(2E)-but-2-enedioic acid

Traditional Name

fumaric acid

SMILES

OC(=O)\C=C\C(O)=O

InChI Identifier

InChI=1S/C4H4O4/c5-3(6)1-2-4(7)8/h1-2H,(H,5,6)(H,7,8)/b2-1+

InChI Key

VZCYOOQTPOCHFL-OWOJBTEDSA-N

Chemical Taxonomy

Description

belongs to the class of organic compounds known as dicarboxylic acids and derivatives. These are organic compounds containing exactly two carboxylic acid groups.

Kingdom

Organic compounds

Super Class

Organic acids and derivatives

Class

Carboxylic acids and derivatives

Sub Class

Dicarboxylic acids and derivatives

Direct Parent

Dicarboxylic acids and derivatives

Alternative Parents

Substituents

Fatty acyl
Fatty acid
Unsaturated fatty acid
Dicarboxylic acid or derivatives
Carboxylic acid
Organic oxygen compound
Organic oxide
Hydrocarbon derivative
Organooxygen compound
Carbonyl group
Aliphatic acyclic compound

Molecular Framework

Aliphatic acyclic compounds

External Descriptors

butenedioic acid (CHEBI:18012 )

Biological Properties

Status

Detected and Not Quantified

Origin

Endogenous

Cellular Locations

Cytoplasm
Extracellular
Membrane
Mitochondria

Biofluid Locations

Not Available

Tissue Locations

Prostate

Pathways

Name	SMPDB Link	KEGG Link
Arginine and Proline Metabolism	SMP00020	map00330
Aspartate Metabolism	SMP00067	map00250
Citric Acid Cycle	SMP00057	map00020
Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain	SMP00355	map00190
Phenylalanine and Tyrosine Metabolism	SMP00008	map00360
Tyrosine Metabolism	SMP00006	map00350
Urea Cycle	SMP00059	Not Available
2-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex deficiency	SMP00549	Not Available
Fumarase deficiency	SMP00547	Not Available
Pyruvate Carboxylase Deficiency	SMP00350	Not Available

Applications

food acidity regulator

Biological Roles

Chemical Roles

Not Available

Physical Properties

State

Solid

Appearance

White powder.

Experimental Properties

Property	Value
Melting Point	549°C
Boiling Point	Not Available
Solubility	7.0 mg/mL

Predicted Properties

Property	Value	Source
Water Solubility	24.1 g/L	ALOGPS
logP	0.21	ALOGPS
logP	-0.041	ChemAxon
logS	-0.68	ALOGPS
pKa (Strongest Acidic)	3.55	ChemAxon
Physiological Charge	-2	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count	4	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Donor Count	2	ChemAxon
Polar Surface Area	74.6 Å²	ChemAxon
Rotatable Bond Count	2	ChemAxon
Refractivity	24.61 m³·mol⁻¹	ChemAxon
Polarizability	9.35 Å³	ChemAxon
Number of Rings	0	ChemAxon
Bioavailability	1	ChemAxon
Rule of Five	Yes	ChemAxon
Ghose Filter	No	ChemAxon
Veber's Rule	No	ChemAxon
MDDR-like Rule	No	ChemAxon

Spectra

Spectrum Type	Description	Splash Key	View
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Pegasus III TOF-MS system, Leco; GC 6890, Agilent Technologies) (2 TMS)	splash10-0002-2940000000-e988056514d4ce4acc27	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Pegasus III TOF-MS system, Leco; GC 6890, Agilent Technologies) (2 TMS)	splash10-0002-2960000000-a5ebaf2bbade922838ec	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Pegasus III TOF-MS system, Leco; GC 6890, Agilent Technologies) (2 TMS)	splash10-0002-2950000000-32afa4d45e0e72b174b4	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Pegasus III TOF-MS system, Leco; GC 6890, Agilent Technologies) (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0002-0950000000-fe0f05c02c783d0b6f6b	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Pegasus III TOF-MS system, Leco; GC 6890, Agilent Technologies) (2 TMS)	splash10-006t-9530000000-0fc03f31f09dc8dbf4c6	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (2 TMS)	splash10-0002-3690000000-75089756992cdbe841e3	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0002-9100000000-2cf649749b42cc0c610c	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0007-0890000000-b1c35cd55deb81254f66	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0002-2940000000-e988056514d4ce4acc27	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0002-2960000000-a5ebaf2bbade922838ec	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0002-2950000000-32afa4d45e0e72b174b4	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0002-0950000000-fe0f05c02c783d0b6f6b	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-006t-9530000000-0fc03f31f09dc8dbf4c6	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0002-3690000000-75089756992cdbe841e3	Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-0002-0940000000-177fdb9168659029ffaa	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized) - 70eV, Positive	splash10-01ba-9200000000-52f88e04bac0ff8cdf17	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (2 TMS) - 70eV, Positive	splash10-00di-8920000000-06da44f348d0fe0358b3	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized) - 70eV, Positive	Not Available	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized) - 70eV, Positive	Not Available	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (TMS_1_1) - 70eV, Positive	Not Available	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (TBDMS_1_1) - 70eV, Positive	Not Available	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (TBDMS_2_1) - 70eV, Positive	Not Available	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 10V, Negative (Annotated)	splash10-00di-9100000000-57f13cd433a6fe4bf0b3	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 25V, Negative (Annotated)	splash10-0229-9600000000-cd9e2979d0bb1e2a62f2	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 40V, Negative (Annotated)	splash10-03k9-8900000000-dc50dbf8a50872383d54	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - EI-B (HITACHI RMU-6L) , Positive	splash10-0002-9100000000-b47e534bc82a6ed36e7c	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-04b277f233e1bd56c9af	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negative	splash10-03di-4900000000-99764eff7d7cb7bfaee3	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 35V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-453b921a0aaf64cfd558	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Positive	splash10-0f6x-9000000000-cd7e7026d13bb5fe844b	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positive	splash10-00dj-9000000000-383c22a29e2769626c47	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Positive	splash10-0ir3-9000000000-3013847e2e0f9bf18d29	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 30V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-9cc4f29b523ed34dc0b6	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 15V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-d9885a6093f38dd8b9fa	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 45V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-46fdee94b5a787f1b81f	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 35V, Negative	splash10-03k9-8900000000-3ff0fb725ec9dffc3688	Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Negative	splash10-014m-9000000000-394fd8f1b59c7befec9d	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positive	splash10-014j-9800000000-dbf34563376daeb2901f	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Positive	splash10-00xs-9200000000-113bf08cdc77707ed3ad	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Positive	splash10-00fr-9000000000-f32d7ec65e8649bc2b0a	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negative	splash10-014i-2900000000-408d53a9fff7acc8ca23	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Negative	splash10-014i-6900000000-f149e9e5a34e27dd4d4e	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Negative	splash10-0fxt-9000000000-cae5f71dc27daaf17d9e	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-3d34cd791255c022876a	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Negative	splash10-00di-9000000000-55a5c43ec34fdd2cb0a4	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Negative	splash10-0uk9-9000000000-7c9639a65d534cd8ff97	Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positive	splash10-000t-9000000000-c5eb63dc643f72e91ede	Spectrum
MS	Mass Spectrum (Electron Ionization)	splash10-0092-9000000000-003dd2d9303272b2ebea	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	13C NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
1D NMR	1H NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
2D NMR	[1H,1H] 2D NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum
2D NMR	[1H,13C] 2D NMR Spectrum	Not Available	Spectrum

Toxicity Profile

Route of Exposure

Endogenous, ingestion, contact (skin and eyes)

Mechanism of Toxicity

Acute Toxicity: Fumarate is also an endogenous electrophile and reacts spontaneously with cysteine residues in proteins by a Michael addition reaction to form S-(2-succinyl) cysteine, a process termed succination. Lachrymators such as fumarate are thought to act by attacking sulfhydryl functional groups in enzymes. One of the most probable protein targets is the TRPA1 ion channel that is expressed in sensory nerves (trigeminal nerve) of the eyes, nose, mouth and lungs. Chronic Toxicity: Fumarate is increasingly being identified as an oncometabolite. Fumarase or fumarate hydratase (FH) is a tumor suppressor, whose mutation is associated with the development of leiomyomata, renal cysts, and tumors. Loss of FH enzymatic activity results in accumulation of intracellular fumarate which has been proposed to act as a competitive inhibitor of 2-oxoglutarate-dependent oxygenases including the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) hydroxylases, thus activating oncogenic HIF pathways. Mitochondrial dysfunction is also associated with FH deficiency. Fumarate hydratase-deficient cells and tumors have been shown to accumulate fumarate to very high levels with multiple consequences including the activation of oncogenic pathways (8). Fumarate (and succinate) inhibit the activity or function of other members of the 2-oxoglutarate-dependent oxygenase superfamily, including histone demethylase enzymes (HDMs) and the TET family of 5-methlycytosine (5mC) hydroxylases which are critical in epigenetic regulation of gene expression.. Fumarate accumulation may also affect cytosolic pathways by inhibiting the reactions involved in the biosynthesis of arginine and purine. More recently it has been found that fumarate promotes p65 phosphorylation and p65 accumulation at the HIF-1α promoter through non-canonical signaling via the upstream Tank Binding Kinase 1 (TBK1). Fumarate is also an endogenous electrophile and reacts spontaneously with cysteine residues in proteins by a Michael addition reaction to form S-(2-succinyl) cysteine, a process termed succination. Accumulation of cellular fumarate has been shown to correlate directly with an increase in succinated proteins. Targets for succination include the glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, adiponectin, cytoskeletal proteins, and endoplasmic reticulum chaperone proteins. Furthermore, evidence suggests that succination of these proteins in cells may impair their functions.

Metabolism

Fumarate is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle used by cells to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from food. It is formed by the oxidation of succinate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase. Fumarate is then converted by the enzyme fumarase (fumarate hydratase) to malate.

Toxicity Values

Not Available

Lethal Dose

Not Available

Carcinogenicity (IARC Classification)

Not listed by IARC. Has been implicated in oncogenesis (6, 7).

Uses/Sources

Fumaric acid is naturally produced by the body, however for industrial applications it is synthesized chemically. Fumaric acid is used to impart a tart taste to processed foods. It is also used as an antifungal agent in boxed foods such as cake mixes and flours, as well as tortillas. Fumaric acid is also added to bread to increase the porosity of the final baked product. It is used to impart a sour taste to sourdough and rye bread. In cake mixes, it is used to maintain a low pH and prevent clumping of the flours used in the mix. In fruit drinks, fumaric acid is used to maintain a low pH which, in turn, helps to stabilize flavor and color. Fumaric acid also prevents the growth of E. coli in beverages when used in combination with sodium benzoate. When added to wines, fumaric acid helps to prevent further fermentation and yet maintain low pH and eliminate traces of metallic elements. In this fashion, it helps to stabilize the taste of wine. Fumaric acid can also be added to dairy products, sports drinks, jams, jellies and candies. Fumaric acid helps to break down bonds between gluten proteins in wheat and helps to create a more pliable dough. Fumaric acid is used in paper sizing, printer toner, and polyester resin for making molded walls.

Minimum Risk Level

Not Available

Health Effects

Acute exposure to fumaric acid can cause skin redness (skin contact), cough or sore throat (inhalation), abdominal cramps, nausea and diarrhea (ingestion). Chronically high levels of fumaric acid are associated with at least 3 inborn errors of metabolism including: 2-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex deficiency, Fumarase deficiency and Pyruvate carboxylase deficiency. Fumarase deficiency causes encephalopathy, severe mental retardation, unusual facial features, brain malformation, and epileptic seizures. High intracellular fumaric acid levels are associated with the development of renal cancer, leiomyomata, renal cysts, and tumors.

Symptoms

Acute exposure to fumaric acid can cause eye and skin irritation, cough or sore throat (inhalation), abdominal cramps, nausea and diarrhea (ingestion).

Treatment

Acute exposure: EYES: irrigate opened eyes for several minutes under running water. INGESTION: do not induce vomiting. Rinse mouth with water (never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person). Seek immediate medical advice. SKIN: should be treated immediately by rinsing the affected parts in cold running water for at least 15 minutes, followed by thorough washing with soap and water. If necessary, the person should shower and change contaminated clothing and shoes, and then must seek medical attention. Chronic Exposure: There is no treatment for fumarase deficiencies. Only palliative care is possible. For cancers caused by intracellular fumarate excess, there are a wide variety of cancer treatments including drugs and surgery.

Concentrations

Not Available

External Links

DrugBank ID

DB01677

HMDB ID

HMDB0000134

FooDB ID

FDB003291

Phenol Explorer ID

Not Available

KNApSAcK ID

BiGG ID

BioCyc ID

METLIN ID

PDB ID

Not Available

Wikipedia Link

Chemspider ID

ChEBI ID

PubChem Compound ID

Kegg Compound ID

YMDB ID

ECMDB ID

References

Synthesis Reference

Chung Kun Shih, Craig W. Gleason, Edmund H. Braun, II, “Solventless process for producing dialkyl fumarate-vinyl acetate copolymers.” U.S. Patent US4772674, issued September, 1980.

MSDS

Link

General References

1. Dong, Changsheng; Ma, Xinming. Method for preparation of fumaric acid from the tail gas acid spray solution from oxidation of phthalic anhydride. Faming Zhuanli Shenqing Gongkai Shuomingshu (2007), 5pp.

2. Klein MS, Almstetter MF, Schlamberger G, Nurnberger N, Dettmer K, Oefner PJ, Meyer HH, Wiedemann S, Gronwald W: Nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry-based milk metabolomics in dairy cows during early and late lactation. J Dairy Sci. 2010 Apr;93(4):1539-50. doi: 10.3168/jds.2009-2563.

3. Klein MS, Buttchereit N, Miemczyk SP, Immervoll AK, Louis C, Wiedemann S, Junge W, Thaller G, Oefner PJ, Gronwald W: NMR metabolomic analysis of dairy cows reveals milk glycerophosphocholine to phosphocholine ratio as prognostic biomarker for risk of ketosis. J Proteome Res. 2012 Feb 3;11(2):1373-81. doi: 10.1021/pr201017n. Epub 2011 Dec 9.

4. Sundekilde UK, Poulsen NA, Larsen LB, Bertram HC: Nuclear magnetic resonance metabonomics reveals strong association between milk metabolites and somatic cell count in bovine milk. J Dairy Sci. 2013 Jan;96(1):290-9. doi: 10.3168/jds.2012-5819. Epub 2012 Nov 22.

5. Sundekilde UK, Gustavsson F, Poulsen NA, Glantz M, Paulsson M, Larsen LB, Bertram HC: Association between the bovine milk metabolome and rennet-induced coagulation properties of milk. J Dairy Sci. 2014 Oct;97(10):6076-84. doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-8304. Epub 2014 Jul 30.

6. Buitenhuis AJ, Sundekilde UK, Poulsen NA, Bertram HC, Larsen LB, Sorensen P: Estimation of genetic parameters and detection of quantitative trait loci for metabolites in Danish Holstein milk. J Dairy Sci. 2013 May;96(5):3285-95. doi: 10.3168/jds.2012-5914. Epub 2013 Mar 15.

7. Scano P, Murgia A, Pirisi FM, Caboni P: A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-based metabolomic approach for the characterization of goat milk compared with cow milk. J Dairy Sci. 2014 Oct;97(10):6057-66. doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-8247. Epub 2014 Aug 6.

8. Maher AD, Hayes B, Cocks B, Marett L, Wales WJ, Rochfort SJ: Latent biochemical relationships in the blood-milk metabolic axis of dairy cows revealed by statistical integration of 1H NMR spectroscopic data. J Proteome Res. 2013 Mar 1;12(3):1428-35. doi: 10.1021/pr301056q. Epub 2013 Feb 21.

9. O'Callaghan TF, Vazquez-Fresno R, Serra-Cayuela A, Dong E, Mandal R, Hennessy D, McAuliffe S, Dillon P, Wishart DS, Stanton C, Ross RP: Pasture Feeding Changes the Bovine Rumen and Milk Metabolome. Metabolites. 2018 Apr 6;8(2). pii: metabo8020027. doi: 10.3390/metabo8020027.