p-Cresol (CHEM000155)

IdentificationTaxonomyBiological PropertiesPhysical PropertiesToxicity ProfileSpectraConcentrationsLinksReferencesTargets (6)XML
Record Information
Version1.0
Creation Date2009-03-06 18:58:12 UTC
Update Date2026-05-14 17:13:03 UTC
Accession NumberCHEM000155
Identification
Common Namep-Cresol
ClassSmall Molecule
Descriptionp-Cresol (4-methylphenol), a 108.1 Da volatile low-molecular-weight compound, is a phenol. It is a partially lipophilic moiety which strongly binds to plasma protein (close to 100%) under normal conditions. p-Cresol is metabolized through conjugation, mainly sulphation and glucuronization, but removal of the unconjugated p-cresol is, at least in part, via the urine. Therefore it is not surprising that this compound, together with several other phenoles, is retained when the kidneys fail. P-Cresol is an end-product of protein breakdown, and an increase of the nutritional protein load in healthy individuals results in enhanced generation and urinary excretion. The serum p-cresol concentration in uremic patients can be decreased by changing to a low-protein diet. p-Cresol is one of the metabolites of the amino acid tyrosine, and to a certain extent also of phenylalanine, which are converted to 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid by intestinal bacteria, before being decarboxylated to p-cresol (putrefaction). The main contributing bacteria are aerobes (mainly enterobacteria), but to a certain extent also anaerobes play a role (mainly Clostridium perfringens). In uremia, modifications in the intestinal flora result in the specific overgrowth of bacteria that are specific p-cresol producers. The administration of antibiotics reduces urinary excretion of p-cresol, as a result of the liquidation of the producing bacteria. Environmental factors might also contribute. The liver cytochrome P450 metabolizes toluene to benzyl alcohol, but also to o-cresol and p-cresol. Toluene is not only used industrially, but it is also the most widely abusively inhaled solvent. Furthermore, p-cresol is a metabolite of menthofuran, one of the metabolites of R-(+)-pulegone, which is found in extracts from the plants Mentha pulegium and Hedeoma pulegioides, commonly known as pennyroyal oil and pennyroyal tea. These extracts are popular as unconventional herbal therapeutic agents and are applied as abortiva, diaphoretics, emmenagogues, and psychedelic drugs. Pennyroyal oil is extensively used for its pleasant mint-like smell in the flavoring industry. The toxicity of pennyroyal oil and menthofuran is well known. Another compound used in traditional medicine, especially in Japan, which is a precursor of p-cresol is wood tar creosote. p-Cresol has been reported to affect several biochemical, biological and physiological functions: (i) it diminishes the oxygen uptake of rat cerebral cortex slices; (ii) it increases the free active drug concentration of warfarin and diazepam; (iii) it has been related to growth retardation in the weanling pig; (iv) it alters cell membrane permeability, at least in bacteria; (v) it induces LDH leakage from rat liver slices; (vi) it induces susceptibility to auditive epileptic crises; and (vii) it blocks cell K+ channels. (5). p-Cresol is a uremic toxin that is at least partially removed by peritoneal dialysis in haemodialysis patients, and has been involved in the progression of renal failure. (MID: 11169029). At concentrations encountered during uremia, p-cresol inhibits phagocyte function and decreases leukocyte adhesion to cytokine-stimulated endothelial cells. (3).
Contaminant Sources
  • Clean Air Act Chemicals
  • EAFUS Chemicals
  • FooDB Chemicals
  • HMDB Contaminants - Feces
  • HMDB Contaminants - Urine
  • HPV EPA Chemicals
  • My Exposome Chemicals
  • OECD HPV Chemicals
  • STOFF IDENT Compounds
  • Sludge Chemicals
  • T3DB toxins
  • ToxCast & Tox21 Chemicals
Contaminant Type
  • Aromatic Hydrocarbon
  • Disinfectant
  • Food Toxin
  • Household Toxin
  • Industrial/Workplace Toxin
  • Metabolite
  • Natural Compound
  • Organic Compound
  • Pollutant
  • Solvent
  • Uremic Toxin
Chemical Structure
Thumb
MOLSDFPDBSMILESInChI
Synonyms
ValueSource
1-Hydroxy-4-methylbenzeneChEBI
4-CresolChEBI
4-HydroxytolueneChEBI
4-MethylphenolChEBI
p-KresolChEBI
p-MethylphenolChEBI
p-Tolyl alcoholChEBI
ParacresolChEBI
1-Methyl-4-hydroxybenzeneHMDB
4-(Pentafluorosulfanyl)phenolHMDB
4-Methyl phenolHMDB
4-Methyl-phenolHMDB
P-CresylateHMDB
P-Cresylic acidHMDB
P-HydroxytolueneHMDB
P-Methyl phenolHMDB
P-MethylhydroxybenzeneHMDB
P-OxytolueneHMDB
P-ToluolHMDB
Paramethyl phenolHMDB
4-Cresol, potassium saltMeSH, HMDB
m-CresolMeSH, HMDB
4-Cresol, aluminum saltMeSH, HMDB
4-Cresol, sodium saltMeSH, HMDB
Para-cresolMeSH, HMDB
Chemical FormulaC7H8O
Average Molecular Mass108.138 g/mol
Monoisotopic Mass108.058 g/mol
CAS Registry Number106-44-5
IUPAC Name4-methylphenol
Traditional NameP-cresol
SMILESCC1=CC=C(O)C=C1
InChI IdentifierInChI=1S/C7H8O/c1-6-2-4-7(8)5-3-6/h2-5,8H,1H3
InChI KeyIWDCLRJOBJJRNH-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Chemical Taxonomy
Description belongs to the class of organic compounds known as para cresols. Para cresols are compounds containing a para cresol moiety, which consists of a benzene ring bearing one hydroxyl group at ring positions 1 and 4.
KingdomOrganic compounds
Super ClassBenzenoids
ClassPhenols
Sub ClassCresols
Direct ParentPara cresols
Alternative Parents
Substituents
  • P-cresol
  • 1-hydroxy-2-unsubstituted benzenoid
  • Toluene
  • Monocyclic benzene moiety
  • Organic oxygen compound
  • Hydrocarbon derivative
  • Organooxygen compound
  • Aromatic homomonocyclic compound
Molecular FrameworkAromatic homomonocyclic compounds
External Descriptors
Biological Properties
StatusDetected and Not Quantified
OriginEndogenous
Cellular Locations
  • Membrane
Biofluid LocationsNot Available
Tissue Locations
  • Adipose Tissue
  • Fibroblasts
PathwaysNot Available
ApplicationsNot Available
Biological Roles
Chemical RolesNot Available
Physical Properties
StateSolid
AppearanceColorless solids or liquids.
Experimental Properties
PropertyValue
Melting Point35.5°C
Boiling PointNot Available
Solubility21.5 mg/mL at 25°C
Predicted Properties
PropertyValueSource
Water Solubility23.1 g/LALOGPS
logP1.95ALOGPS
logP2.18ChemAxon
logS-0.67ALOGPS
pKa (Strongest Acidic)10.36ChemAxon
pKa (Strongest Basic)-5.4ChemAxon
Physiological Charge0ChemAxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count1ChemAxon
Hydrogen Donor Count1ChemAxon
Polar Surface Area20.23 ŲChemAxon
Rotatable Bond Count0ChemAxon
Refractivity33.08 m³·mol⁻¹ChemAxon
Polarizability11.93 ųChemAxon
Number of Rings1ChemAxon
Bioavailability1ChemAxon
Rule of FiveYesChemAxon
Ghose FilterNoChemAxon
Veber's RuleYesChemAxon
MDDR-like RuleNoChemAxon
Spectra
Spectra
Spectrum TypeDescriptionSplash KeyView
GC-MSGC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)splash10-0a4i-5900000000-1d2bdfde621a5af9be73Spectrum
GC-MSGC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)splash10-0a4i-5900000000-b76093f53701327ab25fSpectrum
GC-MSGC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)splash10-0a4i-4900000000-7d25deb1e39c6ef4866fSpectrum
GC-MSGC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)splash10-0a4i-7900000000-15d473146e11e4b049b2Spectrum
GC-MSGC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)splash10-014l-4900000000-14fef90a661a09457976Spectrum
GC-MSGC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)splash10-0a4i-5900000000-1d2bdfde621a5af9be73Spectrum
GC-MSGC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)splash10-0a4i-5900000000-b76093f53701327ab25fSpectrum
GC-MSGC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)splash10-0a4i-4900000000-7d25deb1e39c6ef4866fSpectrum
GC-MSGC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)splash10-0a4i-7900000000-15d473146e11e4b049b2Spectrum
GC-MSGC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)splash10-014l-4900000000-14fef90a661a09457976Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized) - 70eV, Positivesplash10-0a4i-6900000000-27534de20ade11dd5454Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (1 TMS) - 70eV, Positivesplash10-06fr-9700000000-f41dd95ca553de6bafffSpectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized) - 70eV, PositiveNot AvailableSpectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized) - 70eV, PositiveNot AvailableSpectrum
LC-MS/MSLC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 10V, Positive (Annotated)splash10-0a4i-5900000000-ab55ada5cae0538f383eSpectrum
LC-MS/MSLC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 25V, Positive (Annotated)splash10-0006-9000000000-385a7a99e0409c7f060dSpectrum
LC-MS/MSLC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 40V, Positive (Annotated)splash10-02tl-9000000000-205f4e5245868e9debccSpectrum
LC-MS/MSLC-MS/MS Spectrum - EI-B (VARIAN MAT-44) , Positivesplash10-0a4i-5900000000-fd438231ac0ed75fdf09Spectrum
LC-MS/MSLC-MS/MS Spectrum - EI-B (HITACHI RMU-7M) , Positivesplash10-0a4i-5900000000-b76093f53701327ab25fSpectrum
LC-MS/MSLC-MS/MS Spectrum - EI-B (JEOL JMS-D-3000) , Positivesplash10-0a4i-4900000000-7d25deb1e39c6ef4866fSpectrum
LC-MS/MSLC-MS/MS Spectrum - EI-B (HITACHI M-80B) , Positivesplash10-0a4i-7900000000-0cdab17a1a95f3e65f45Spectrum
LC-MS/MSLC-MS/MS Spectrum - NA 35V, negativesplash10-0a6u-9600000000-276b44cbbdb079cac718Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positivesplash10-0a4i-0900000000-cf0bed2b3a203309d9aaSpectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Positivesplash10-0a4i-1900000000-4f20c8bd2dde845b499cSpectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Positivesplash10-0fb9-9100000000-393b5f734646352622f9Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negativesplash10-0a4i-0900000000-0c45920f40546c2d8944Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Negativesplash10-0a4i-0900000000-417774c01b748db1609dSpectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Negativesplash10-0a4i-9600000000-5583b6dc3ae583b8dab0Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negativesplash10-0a4i-0900000000-3f09649991cc4cfcf1ecSpectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Negativesplash10-0a4i-0900000000-3f09649991cc4cfcf1ecSpectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Negativesplash10-0006-9000000000-6eb0884733967edc9e6bSpectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positivesplash10-0a4i-3900000000-621936189d60e194cefdSpectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Positivesplash10-056u-9100000000-2740c99af64b11309dfbSpectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Positivesplash10-00kf-9000000000-1c2034d922354f5d6682Spectrum
MSMass Spectrum (Electron Ionization)splash10-0a4i-6900000000-729e6f5bdb0da3ed9dedSpectrum
1D NMR1H NMR SpectrumNot AvailableSpectrum
1D NMR1H NMR SpectrumNot AvailableSpectrum
1D NMR13C NMR SpectrumNot AvailableSpectrum
1D NMR1H NMR SpectrumNot AvailableSpectrum
1D NMR13C NMR SpectrumNot AvailableSpectrum
2D NMR[1H,13C] 2D NMR SpectrumNot AvailableSpectrum
Toxicity Profile
Route of ExposureInhalation (20) ; dermal (20) ; oral (20)
Mechanism of Toxicityp-Cresol is a cholinesterase or acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor. A cholinesterase inhibitor (or 'anticholinesterase') suppresses the action of acetylcholinesterase. Because of its essential function, chemicals that interfere with the action of acetylcholinesterase are potent neurotoxins, causing excessive salivation and eye-watering in low doses, followed by muscle spasms and ultimately death. Nerve gases and many substances used in insecticides have been shown to act by binding a serine in the active site of acetylcholine esterase, inhibiting the enzyme completely. Acetylcholine esterase breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which is released at nerve and muscle junctions, in order to allow the muscle or organ to relax. The result of acetylcholine esterase inhibition is that acetylcholine builds up and continues to act so that any nerve impulses are continually transmitted and muscle contractions do not stop. Among the most common acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are phosphorus-based compounds, which are designed to bind to the active site of the enzyme. The structural requirements are a phosphorus atom bearing two lipophilic groups, a leaving group (such as a halide or thiocyanate), and a terminal oxygen.
MetabolismCresols can be absorbed following inhalation, oral, and dermal exposure. Once in the body they can distribute rapidly into many organs and tissues. Cresols undergo oxidative metabolism in the liver and are rapidly eliminated, mostly in the urine, as sulfate or glucuronide conjugates. The activation of cresols by oxidation involves tyrosinase and thyroid peroxidase, forming a reactive quinone methide. Experiments with recombinant P-450s demonstrated cresol metabolism was mediated by several P-450s including CYP2D6, 2C19, 1A2, 1A1, and 2E1. (20, 1, 21, 2)
Toxicity ValuesLD50: 207 mg/kg (Oral, Rat) (22) LD50: 301 mg/kg (Dermal, Rabbit) (22) LD50: 25 mg/kg (Intraperitoneal, Mouse) (22)
Lethal DoseNot Available
Carcinogenicity (IARC Classification)No indication of carcinogenicity to humans (not listed by IARC).
Uses/SourcesCresols are used as solvents, disinfectants and deodorizers, as well as to make other chemicals. They may be formed normally in the body from other compounds. Cresols are found in many foods and in wood and tobacco smoke, crude oil, coal tar, and in chemical mixtures used as wood preservatives. Small organisms in soil and water produce cresols when they break down materials in the environment. Breathing air containing cresols is the primary source of exposure. Exposure may also result from drinking contaminated water, eating contaminated food and coming into contact with liquids containing cresols. (20)
Minimum Risk LevelIntermediate Oral: 0.1 mg/kg/day (16) Chronic Oral: 0.1 mg/kg/day (16)
Health EffectsAcute exposure to cholinesterase inhibitors can cause a cholinergic crisis characterized by severe nausea/vomiting, salivation, sweating, bradycardia, hypotension, collapse, and convulsions. Increasing muscle weakness is a possibility and may result in death if respiratory muscles are involved. Accumulation of ACh at motor nerves causes overstimulation of nicotinic expression at the neuromuscular junction. When this occurs symptoms such as muscle weakness, fatigue, muscle cramps, fasciculation, and paralysis can be seen. When there is an accumulation of ACh at autonomic ganglia this causes overstimulation of nicotinic expression in the sympathetic system. Symptoms associated with this are hypertension, and hypoglycemia. Overstimulation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the central nervous system, due to accumulation of ACh, results in anxiety, headache, convulsions, ataxia, depression of respiration and circulation, tremor, general weakness, and potentially coma. When there is expression of muscarinic overstimulation due to excess acetylcholine at muscarinic acetylcholine receptors symptoms of visual disturbances, tightness in chest, wheezing due to bronchoconstriction, increased bronchial secretions, increased salivation, lacrimation, sweating, peristalsis, and urination can occur. Certain reproductive effects in fertility, growth, and development for males and females have been linked specifically to organophosphate pesticide exposure. Most of the research on reproductive effects has been conducted on farmers working with pesticides and insecticdes in rural areas. In females menstrual cycle disturbances, longer pregnancies, spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, and some developmental effects in offspring have been linked to organophosphate pesticide exposure. Prenatal exposure has been linked to impaired fetal growth and development. Neurotoxic effects have also been linked to poisoning with OP pesticides causing four neurotoxic effects in humans: cholinergic syndrome, intermediate syndrome, organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy (OPIDP), and chronic organophosphate-induced neuropsychiatric disorder (COPIND). These syndromes result after acute and chronic exposure to OP pesticides.
SymptomsIngestion of p-cresol results in burning of the mouth and throat, abdominal pain, and vomiting. Inhalation or dermal exposure of animals to p-cresol can produce irritation and corrosion at the site of contact. (18)
TreatmentIf the compound has been ingested, rapid gastric lavage should be performed using 5% sodium bicarbonate. For skin contact, the skin should be washed with soap and water. If the compound has entered the eyes, they should be washed with large quantities of isotonic saline or water. In serious cases, atropine and/or pralidoxime should be administered. Anti-cholinergic drugs work to counteract the effects of excess acetylcholine and reactivate AChE. Atropine can be used as an antidote in conjunction with pralidoxime or other pyridinium oximes (such as trimedoxime or obidoxime), though the use of '-oximes' has been found to be of no benefit, or possibly harmful, in at least two meta-analyses. Atropine is a muscarinic antagonist, and thus blocks the action of acetylcholine peripherally.
Concentrations
Not Available
DrugBank IDDB01688
HMDB IDHMDB0001858
FooDB IDFDB008789
Phenol Explorer IDNot Available
KNApSAcK IDC00002645
BiGG IDNot Available
BioCyc IDCPD-108
METLIN ID4236
PDB IDNot Available
Wikipedia LinkP-cresol
Chemspider ID13839082
ChEBI ID17847
PubChem Compound ID2879
Kegg Compound IDC01468
YMDB IDYMDB16061
ECMDB IDECMDB21349
References
Synthesis Reference

Heliodoro Monroy, “Process of recovering BHT values from mother liquors of the crystallization of BHT obtained by alkylating p-cresol with isobutylene.” U.S. Patent US3940451, issued January, 1956.

MSDSLink
General References
1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=12427124
2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=17660685
3. Mung D, Li L: Development of Chemical Isotope Labeling LC-MS for Milk Metabolomics: Comprehensive and Quantitative Profiling of the Amine/Phenol Submetabolome. Anal Chem. 2017 Apr 18;89(8):4435-4443. doi: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03737. Epub 2017 Mar 28.
4. O'Callaghan TF, Vazquez-Fresno R, Serra-Cayuela A, Dong E, Mandal R, Hennessy D, McAuliffe S, Dillon P, Wishart DS, Stanton C, Ross RP: Pasture Feeding Changes the Bovine Rumen and Milk Metabolome. Metabolites. 2018 Apr 6;8(2). pii: metabo8020027. doi: 10.3390/metabo8020027.
5. Cork A, Park KC: Identification of electrophysiologically-active compounds for the malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, in human sweat extracts. Med Vet Entomol. 1996 Jul;10(3):269-76.
6. Bone E, Tamm A, Hill M: The production of urinary phenols by gut bacteria and their possible role in the causation of large bowel cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. 1976 Dec;29(12):1448-54.
7. Buhlmann P, Hayakawa M, Ohshiro T, Amemiya S, Umezawa Y: Influence of natural, electrically neutral lipids on the potentiometric responses of cation-selective polymeric membrane electrodes. Anal Chem. 2001 Jul 15;73(14):3199-205.
8. Akasaka K, Ohrui H, Meguro H, Tamura M: Determination of triacylglycerol and cholesterol ester hydroperoxides in human plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorometric postcolumn detection. J Chromatogr. 1993 Aug 11;617(2):205-11.
9. Gostner A, Blaut M, Schaffer V, Kozianowski G, Theis S, Klingeberg M, Dombrowski Y, Martin D, Ehrhardt S, Taras D, Schwiertz A, Kleessen B, Luhrs H, Schauber J, Dorbath D, Menzel T, Scheppach W: Effect of isomalt consumption on faecal microflora and colonic metabolism in healthy volunteers. Br J Nutr. 2006 Jan;95(1):40-50.
10. Ogata N, Shibata T: Binding of alkyl- and alkoxy-substituted simple phenolic compounds to human serum proteins. Res Commun Mol Pathol Pharmacol. 2000;107(1-2):167-73.
11. Letelier ME, Rodriguez E, Wallace A, Lorca M, Repetto Y, Morello A, Aldunate J: Trypanosoma cruzi: a possible control of transfusion-induced Chagas' disease by phenolic antioxidants. Exp Parasitol. 1990 Nov;71(4):357-63.
12. Geyer H, Scheunert I, Korte F: Bioconcentration potential of organic environmental chemicals in humans. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 1986 Dec;6(4):313-47.
13. Nishiyama T, Ohnishi J, Hashiguchi Y: Fused heterocyclic antioxidants: antioxidative activities of hydrocoumarins in a homogeneous solution. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2001 May;65(5):1127-33.
14. Dills RL, Bellamy GM, Kalman DA: Quantitation of o-, m- and p-cresol and deuterated analogs in human urine by gas chromatography with electron capture detection. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl. 1997 Dec 5;703(1-2):105-13.
15. Bammens B, Verbeke K, Vanrenterghem Y, Evenepoel P: Evidence for impaired assimilation of protein in chronic renal failure. Kidney Int. 2003 Dec;64(6):2196-203.
16. Vanholder R, De Smet R, Lesaffer G: p-cresol: a toxin revealing many neglected but relevant aspects of uraemic toxicity. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1999 Dec;14(12):2813-5.
17. Brunet P, Dou L, Cerini C, Berland Y: Protein-bound uremic retention solutes. Adv Ren Replace Ther. 2003 Oct;10(4):310-20.
18. Sivsammye G, Sims HV: Presumptive identification of Clostridium difficile by detection of p-cresol in prepared peptone yeast glucose broth supplemented with p-hydroxyphenylacetic acid. J Clin Microbiol. 1990 Aug;28(8):1851-3.
19. Passmore IJ, Letertre MPM, Preston MD, Bianconi I, Harrison MA, Nasher F, Kaur H, Hong HA, Baines SD, Cutting SM, Swann JR, Wren BW, Dawson LF: Para-cresol production by Clostridium difficile affects microbial diversity and membrane integrity of Gram-negative bacteria. PLoS Pathog. 2018 Sep 12;14(9):e1007191. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007191. eCollection 2018 Sep.
20. Lameire N, Vanholder R, De Smet R: Uremic toxins and peritoneal dialysis. Kidney Int Suppl. 2001 Feb;78:S292-7.
21. Patel M, Fowler D, Sizer J, Walton C: Faecal volatile biomarkers of Clostridium difficile infection. PLoS One. 2019 Apr 15;14(4):e0215256. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215256. eCollection 2019.